Frequently Asked Questions

Frequency bands are specific ranges within the RF spectrum (3 kHz to 300 GHz) allocated for different types of wireless communication.

• Cellular Networks: Mobile carriers use licensed frequency bands, typically ranging from 600 MHz to 5 GHz, with newer 5G networks extending into the mmWave spectrum (24 GHz – 100 GHz) for ultra-fast speeds and low latency.
• ERRCS (Emergency Responder Radio Communication Systems): Public safety and emergency responder networks operate in dedicated frequency bands, such as the VHF (150-174 MHz), UHF (450-512 MHz), and 700/800 MHz bands, ensuring reliable communication for first responders inside buildings and in emergencies.

Each band is assigned based on performance needs—lower frequencies (e.g., 600 MHz, 700 MHz) travel farther and penetrate buildings better, while higher frequencies (e.g., mmWave) provide more bandwidth but cover shorter distances.

SINR thresholds define the signal quality levels needed for different wireless technologies to function properly:

• > 20 dB – Excellent (Strong signal, optimal speeds and performance)
• 13 to 20 dB – Good (Stable connection with high speeds)
• 0 to 13 dB – Fair (Usable but may experience slower speeds and occasional issues)

Small cells are mini cell towers that improve network coverage and speed in crowded areas. They help boost signals in places like stadiums, malls, and city streets.

2G was the first digital cellular network that let people send text messages and make clearer phone calls than older analog systems. It was slow, only good for calling and basic texting, and has mostly been shut down today.

3G made mobile internet possible, allowing people to browse the web, send emails, and stream basic videos on their phones. It was much faster than 2G but still too slow for high-quality streaming and big downloads.

4G LTE is an improved version of 4G that delivers faster speeds, better call quality, and lower lag times for mobile internet. It bridged the gap between 4G and 5G by providing a more reliable and efficient connection, making high-definition streaming, online gaming, and video calls smoother.

4G brought fast internet to mobile devices, making high-definition video streaming, online gaming, and video calls smooth and reliable. It’s still widely used today and serves as the foundation for modern wireless networks.

5G is the newest and fastest cellular technology, offering super-fast speeds, almost no delay, and the ability to connect many devices at once. It’s key to future innovations like self-driving cars, smart cities, and next-gen wireless tech.

6G is the future generation of wireless technology, expected to launch around 2030, delivering speeds up to 100 times faster than 5G with near-instant response times. It will introduce AI-driven networks, real-time holographic communication, advanced automation, and seamless global connectivity, supporting innovations like smart cities, autonomous vehicles, and next-gen augmented and virtual reality (AR/VR). 6G will likely use terahertz (THz) frequencies (100 GHz – 1 THz) to enable ultra-fast, high-capacity data transmission, unlocking new possibilities for wireless communication.

A base station is the main hub of a cellular network, handling signals between mobile devices and the wider network. It’s like the cell tower that makes your phone calls and internet work.

A cellular network is the system of towers and antennas that let mobile devices make calls and access the internet wirelessly. It divides areas into “cells,” each served by a tower, so users can stay connected as they move.

Licensed spectrum refers to specific frequency bands that require government authorization for use, ensuring minimal interference and dedicated bandwidth for carriers and critical communications.

• Cellular Networks: Mobile carriers like AT&T, Verizon, and T-Mobile operate in licensed spectrum bands, typically ranging from 600 MHz to 5 GHz, with 5G expanding into mmWave (24 GHz – 100 GHz) for ultra-high speeds and low latency. Lower bands (e.g., 600 MHz, 700 MHz) offer better coverage and building penetration, while mid-band and high-band frequencies (e.g., 2.5 GHz, 3.5 GHz, and mmWave) provide faster speeds but cover shorter distances.
• ERRCS (Emergency Responder Radio Communication Systems): First responder networks use dedicated licensed frequencies in bands like VHF (150-174 MHz), UHF (450-512 MHz), and the 700/800 MHz public safety bands to ensure strong and interference-free communication inside buildings and in emergencies.

Licensed spectrum is tightly regulated to maintain reliability and efficiency, preventing overcrowding and ensuring secure transmissions for critical applications.

A repeater captures, boosts, and rebroadcasts a weak signal to extend coverage in areas with poor reception.

A splitter divides a signal into multiple paths, allowing it to reach different antennas or devices.

A wireless network lets devices connect to the internet without cables, using radio waves instead. Examples include Wi-Fi at home and cellular networks for mobile phones.

An access point is a device that connects wireless devices (like phones and laptops) to a wired internet network. It’s like a Wi-Fi hotspot, letting multiple devices get online in an area like a home, office, or public place.

An antenna sends and receives radio signals so your phone or other wireless devices can connect to a network. In large networks, multiple antennas (nodes) are placed around an area to ensure strong, consistent coverage.

Unlicensed spectrum refers to frequency bands that are open for public use without needing a license from the government. These bands are commonly used for Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and IoT devices, allowing businesses and consumers to set up wireless networks without carrier restrictions.

• Common Unlicensed Bands:
  • 2.4 GHz – Used for Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and many wireless devices; offers long range but can be crowded.
  • 5 GHz – Faster than 2.4 GHz, with less interference but slightly shorter range.
  • 6 GHz – Introduced with Wi-Fi 6E and Wi-Fi 7, offering more bandwidth and reduced congestion.
  • 60 GHz (mmWave, also called WiGig) – Ultra-high-speed short-range communication used for advanced wireless applications.

Since multiple devices share unlicensed spectrum, interference can be an issue in crowded environments. However, newer technologies like Wi-Fi 6 and Wi-Fi 7 use AI-driven optimizations to reduce congestion and improve efficiency.

AWS (Advanced Wireless Services) refers to a set of licensed frequency bands in the 1.7 GHz to 2.1 GHz range used for cellular networks, including 4G LTE and 5G services. These frequencies are commonly used by mobile carriers like AT&T, Verizon, and T-Mobile to provide high-capacity, mid-band spectrum for faster data speeds and improved coverage. AWS spectrum is essential for balancing coverage and capacity, making it a key component of modern wireless networks, especially in urban areas where demand for mobile data is high.

Backhaul is how data travels from cell towers or antennas to the main internet network. It’s like the highway that carries internet traffic behind the scenes, making sure calls, videos, and web browsing work smoothly.

Bandwidth is the amount of data that can travel through a network at one time, like how wide a highway is for cars. More bandwidth means faster internet and the ability to handle more users at once.

Beamforming is a smart way for antennas to focus their signals toward specific devices instead of sending signals in all directions. This makes connections stronger, reduces interference, and improves speed.

C-Band refers to a mid-band spectrum ranging from 3.3 GHz to 4.2 GHz, widely used for 5G networks, satellite communications, and radar systems. In the U.S., mobile carriers like Verizon, AT&T, and T-Mobile use the 3.7 GHz to 3.98 GHz portion of the C-Band to provide a balance between coverage and speed, offering faster data rates than low-band spectrum while providing better range and building penetration than mmWave. C-Band is considered a key component of 5G deployment, enabling faster connectivity in cities and suburbs while supporting high-demand applications like streaming, gaming, and IoT devices.

Carrier aggregation is when a phone or device combines multiple frequency channels to get faster internet speeds. It’s like using multiple lanes on a highway instead of just one to get more traffic moving faster.

CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) is a wireless communication technology that allows multiple devices to share the same frequency band by assigning each call or data session a unique code. This enables efficient use of spectrum, better call quality, and enhanced security compared to older technologies.

CDMA was widely used for 3G networks by carriers like Verizon and Sprint in the U.S. before being replaced by 4G LTE. Unlike GSM-based networks (which use SIM cards), CDMA devices were traditionally locked to a specific carrier and did not require SIM cards for authentication.

A DAS is a network of small antennas placed around a building or area to improve cellular signal. It helps eliminate dead zones in places like stadiums, malls, and underground parking garages.

ERCES is a system installed in buildings to ensure reliable two-way radio communication for first responders during emergencies. It boosts and extends radio signals inside structures where thick walls, underground areas, or interference could otherwise block critical emergency communications.

ERRCS is a special radio system that ensures firefighters, police, and emergency responders always have a strong signal inside buildings. It’s required in many large structures to keep first responders connected in emergencies.

FirstNet (First Responder Network Authority) is a nationwide, high-priority wireless network in the U.S. built specifically for first responders, emergency services, and public safety agencies. Operated by AT&T in partnership with the U.S. government, FirstNet provides dedicated spectrum (Band 14 – 700 MHz), ensuring strong, reliable coverage, even in emergencies or network congestion. It offers priority and preemption for first responders, meaning their communications are never interrupted, making it a critical tool for police, fire, EMS, and disaster response teams.

The “G” in 2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G stands for Generation, referring to the different stages of mobile network technology. Each new generation brings faster speeds, better reliability, and new capabilities—1G was analog, 2G introduced texting, 3G brought mobile internet, 4G enabled high-speed data, and 5G is revolutionizing connectivity with ultra-fast speeds and low latency. Future generations like 6G will continue to push the boundaries of wireless communication.

GSM is an old but widely used mobile network standard that allowed people to use their phones around the world. It helped standardize mobile communication but has been largely replaced by newer technologies like LTE and 5G.

IoT refers to devices that connect to the internet to share data, like smart thermostats, fitness trackers, and security cameras. These devices communicate with each other and can be controlled remotely.

IT/OT convergence is the merging of traditional IT (computers and networks) with OT (machines and industrial systems) to improve efficiency. It’s used in industries like manufacturing and energy to connect everything into one smart system.

Latency is the time delay between sending and receiving data, like the lag in a video call. Lower latency means a faster, more responsive experience, which is crucial for gaming, streaming, and self-driving cars.

MIMO uses multiple antennas to send and receive data at the same time, increasing speed and reliability. It’s like having multiple lanes on a road instead of just one, allowing more data to move efficiently.

mmWave (Millimeter Wave) refers to high-frequency radio waves in the 24 GHz to 100 GHz range, used primarily for 5G networks, high-speed wireless communication, and advanced radar systems. It enables ultra-fast data speeds (up to 10 Gbps) and extremely low latency, making it ideal for applications like smart cities, autonomous vehicles, and augmented reality (AR/VR). However, mmWave signals have a shorter range and struggle to penetrate buildings, requiring small cells and dense network deployments to ensure reliable coverage.

MOCN (Multi-Operator Core Network) is a network-sharing technology that allows multiple mobile carriers to share the same radio access network (RAN), including towers, antennas, and spectrum, while keeping their core networks separate. This enables carriers to expand coverage, reduce infrastructure costs, and improve network efficiencywithout needing to build duplicate cell sites. MOCN is commonly used in rural areas, stadiums, airports, and large venues to provide seamless service for customers of different wireless providers using a single shared network.

Network slicing divides a single 5G network into separate virtual networks for different uses, like emergency services or gaming. This ensures each service gets exactly the performance it needs.

Off-Air Signal Source: This method captures an existing wireless signal from a nearby cell tower using a donor antenna and then rebroadcasts it within a building or area. It is often used in repeater-based systems and is a cost-effective way to enhance coverage but depends on the strength of the external signal.

On-Air Signal Source: This refers to a direct network-fed connection, such as a fiber-based link from a mobile carrier’s core network or a dedicated on-site base station (BTS or small cell). It provides a stronger, more controlled, and interference-free signal, making it ideal for enterprise-level DAS deployments, large venues, and critical communication systems like ERRCS and ERCES.

Passive infrastructure refers to the physical components of a wireless network that support signal transmission but do not actively process or amplify signals. This includes cell towers, antennas, cables, fiber optic networks, power supplies, and mounting structures. In DAS and cellular networks, passive infrastructure plays a crucial role in delivering connectivity by providing the foundation for active equipment like radios and amplifiers. Sharing passive infrastructure—such as tower leasing or neutral host DAS—helps reduce costs and expand network coverage efficiently.

Private 5G is a dedicated, standalone 5G network built for a specific organization, such as a business, factory, hospital, airport, or campus, rather than being operated by a public mobile carrier. It provides ultra-fast speeds, low latency, enhanced security, and complete control over network performance, making it ideal for industrial automation, smart manufacturing, mission-critical communications, and IoT deployments. Unlike public 5G, a private 5G network uses licensed, unlicensed, or shared spectrum and can be customized to meet the unique needs of an enterprise while ensuring reliable and interference-free connectivity.

RF refers to the electromagnetic waves used for wireless communication, including radio, TV, cellular networks, and Wi-Fi. These signals travel through the air and allow devices to send and receive information without physical cables.

RF propagation describes how radio waves travel through different environments, like buildings, trees, and open air.

Signal amplification boosts weak signals to improve performance and coverage in areas with poor reception.

A signal amplifier boosts weak cellular signals, improving call quality and internet speeds. It’s commonly used in buildings or remote areas where the signal is weak.

A signal source is the origin of the wireless signal used to provide coverage within a network, such as in a DAS (Distributed Antenna System), repeater system, or cellular network. It can come from various sources, including a carrier’s base station, a donor antenna picking up an external signal, or a dedicated fiber-fed connection from the network operator. The quality and strength of the signal source directly impact network performance.

SINR (Signal-to-Interference-plus-Noise Ratio) measures the quality of a wireless signal by comparing the strength of the desired signal to background interference and noise. A higher SINR means a clearer, stronger signal, resulting in better call quality, faster data speeds, and more reliable network performance.

SISO is the simplest wireless communication method, using just one antenna to send and receive data. It’s less efficient than MIMO but still works for basic communication.

UHF (Ultra High Frequency) refers to the radio frequency range from 300 MHz to 3 GHz, commonly used in public safety, two-way radios, and emergency responder communication systems (ERRCS). In DAS (Distributed Antenna Systems) and ERRCS, UHF bands—particularly 450-512 MHz and the 700/800 MHz public safety bands—are used to ensure strong, reliable indoor coverage for firefighters, police, and emergency personnel. UHF signals are highly effective at penetrating buildings, making them critical for in-building radio systems and mission-critical communications.

UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) is a 3G mobile network technology that provides high-speed voice, video, and data services over cellular networks. It is part of the WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access) standard and was widely used to enable mobile internet, video calls, and multimedia messaging before the introduction of 4G LTE. UMTS supports download speeds up to 42 Mbps with HSPA+ (High-Speed Packet Access) enhancements and was a key step in the evolution from 2G (GSM) to 4G (LTE).

VHF (Very High Frequency) refers to the radio frequency range from 30 MHz to 300 MHz, commonly used for public safety, emergency responder communications, and two-way radios. In DAS (Distributed Antenna Systems) and ERRCS (Emergency Responder Radio Communication Systems), VHF bands—particularly 150-174 MHz—are used in rural areas, large campuses, and outdoor environments where longer-range communication is needed. While VHF signals travel farther in open spaces, they are less effective at penetrating buildings compared to UHF, which is why a properly designed ERRCS with VHF support is crucial for ensuring reliable in-building emergency communication.

Wi-Fi is a wireless technology that connects devices to the internet using radio waves. It’s what powers home and public internet connections without needing cables.

Wi-Fi 6 is an upgraded version of Wi-Fi that provides faster speeds, better performance in crowded areas, and improved battery life for connected devices. It reduces network congestion, making it ideal for homes, offices, and public spaces with many devices connected at once.

Wi-Fi 7 is the next-generation Wi-Fi technology that delivers ultra-fast speeds, lower latency, and greater reliability for demanding applications like 8K streaming, VR, and cloud gaming. It introduces AI-powered optimizations that automatically adjust network performance, reduce interference, and improve efficiency, making wireless connections smarter and more responsive in real time.